Current value

Fair value employee share options in IFRS 2

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Fair value employee share options

Share options give the holder the right to buy the underlying shares at a set price, called the ‘exercise price’, over or at the end of an agreed period. If the share price exceeds the option’s exercise price when the option is exercised, then the holder of the option profits by the amount of the excess of the share price over the exercise price. Benefit is derived from the right under the option to buy a share for less than its value.

The holder’s cost is the exercise price, whereas the value is the share price. It is not necessary for the holder to sell the share for this profit to exist. Sale only results in realisation of the profit. Because an option holder’s profit increases as the underlying share price increases, share options are used to incentivise employees to contribute to an increase in the price of the underlying shares.

Employee options are typically call options, which give holders the right but not the obligation to buy shares. However, other types of options are also traded in markets. For example, put options give holders the right to sell the underlying shares at an agreed price for a set period.

Given that holders of put options profit when share prices fall below the exercise price, such options are not viewed as aligning the interests of employees and shareholders. All references in this section to ‘share options’ are to employee call options.

Share options granted by entities often cannot be valued with reference to market prices. Many entities, even those whose shares are quoted publicly, do not have options traded on their shares. Options that trade on recognised exchanges such as the Chicago Board Options Exchange are created by market participants and are not issued by entities directly.

Even when there are exchange-traded options on an entity’s shares for which prices are available, the terms and conditions of these options are generally different from the terms and conditions of options issued by entities in share-based payments and, as a result, the prices of such traded options cannot be used directly to value share options issued in a share-based payment.

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Option valuation models

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Option valuation models

Option valuation models use mathematical techniques to identify a range of possible future share prices at the exercise date. From these possible future share prices, the pay-off of an option can be calculated. These intrinsic values at exercise are then probability-weighted and discounted to their present value to estimate the fair value of the option at the grant date.

This narrative is part of the IFRS 2 series, look here.

Model selection

There are three main models used to value options:

  • closed-form models: e.g. the BSM model;
  • lattice models; and
  • simulation models: e.g. Monte Carlo models.

These models generally result in very similar values if the same assumptions are used. However, certain models may be more restrictive than others – e.g. in terms of the different pay-offs that can be considered or assumptions that can be incorporated.

For example, a BSM model incorporates early exercise behaviour by using an expected term assumption that is shorter than the contractual life, whereas a lattice model or Monte Carlo model can incorporate more complex early exercise behaviour.

Simple model explanation

The approach followed in, for example, a lattice model illustrates the principles used in an option valuation model in a simplified manner.

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Need for accounting measurement the big 1

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Need for accounting measurement

Need for accounting measurement provides a summary of the measurement bases in use in Financial Reporting
and the concepts behind these measurement bases.
The measurement bases that will be considered here are

All these bases are forms of accrual accounting – that is, they are intended to measure income as it is earned and costs as they are incurred, as opposed to simply recording cash flows. The last four are all forms of current value measurement.

In forming a judgment on the appropriateness of measurement bases, in literature, the overriding tests has been identified to be their cost-effectiveness and fitness for purpose. However, in the absence of direct evidence on these matters, it is usual to argue in terms of various secondary characteristics that ought to be relevant in assessing the quality of information (see the key indicators in What is useful information?).

The most important of these characteristics are generally considered to be relevance and faithful representation / reliability (older term).

For each basis, an outline is given of how it works and the relevance and faithful representation of the resulting measurements. The question of measurement costs is also considered briefly. In reading the analyses that follow, the following comments should be borne in mind.

Bases of measurement in financial reporting are not carved in stone. Different people have different views on how each basis should work, and meanings evolve as practice changes. Some readers may therefore find that the way a particular basis is described does not match how they understand it.

This does not mean either that their understanding is wrong or that the description in the report is wrong; views on these things simply differ.

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Introduction IFRS 17 Insurance contracts

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Introduction IFRS 17 Insurance contracts – More than 20 years in development, IFRS 17 represents a complete overhaul of accounting for insurance contracts. The new standard applies a current value approach to measuring insurance contracts and recognises profit as insurers provide services and are released from risk. Introduction IFRS 17 Insurance contracts

The profit or loss earned from underwriting activities are reported separately from financing activities. Detailed note disclosures explain how items like new business issued, experience in the year, cash receipts and payments, and changes in assumptions affected the performance and the carrying amount of insurance contracts. Introduction IFRS 17 Insurance contracts

IFRS 17 establishes principles for the recognition, measurement, presentation and disclosure of insurance contracts issued, reinsurance contracts … Read more

The Acquisition Method illustrated

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The Acquisition Method illustrated – a little history of acquisitions, mergers, purchase accounting, pooling of interests, goodwill, intangible assets acquired and the current end to this IFRS 3 Business Combinations. This is a developing story I will add stuff to end with a complete overview. The Acquisition Method illustrated

The short case: The Acquisition Method illustrated

The company A Corp is purchasing all shares in B Corp. Control is acquired by A Corp, B Corp disappears from the economic entity, and B or B’s shareholders receive either A Corp stock or other property. This will result in a business combination which means A Corp’s acquisition of control over the business of B Corp. The Acquisition Method … Read more

Presentation and disclosure

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Presentation and disclosure are the terms used to describe how information about assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses is provided in the accounts.

Historical cost measurement

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Historical cost measurement – The historical cost of an asset is the amount paid for it and the historical cost of a liability is the amount received in respect of it or the amount expected to be paid to satisfy it.USD

Historical cost accounting is interpreted to require that the amount at which an asset is stated in the accounts should not exceed the amount expected to be recovered from either its use or its sale (its recoverable amount). Historical cost as it is understood is therefore recoverable historical cost.

Recoverable amount is usually considered to be the higher of an asset’s realisable value and its value in use. The resulting recoverable historical cost tree for determining an asset’s recoverable … Read more

1 Great and Complete Check – Identification of markets and transactions

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Identification of markets and transactions

Many measurements in financial reporting are, or purport to be, based on current market values. The case for such measurements is strongest where values can be taken from active markets and can therefore be objectively verified. Identification of markets and transactions

Identification of markets and transactionsAn active market is described in IFRS 13, as one where ‘transactions for the asset or liability take place with sufficient frequency and volume to provide pricing information on an ongoing basis.’ This definition is very universal, every transaction can be part of it.

The Application Guidance to IAS 39 Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement, described active market, as one where ‘quoted prices are readily and regularly available from an exchange, dealer, … Read more

Disclosure innovations in financial reporting

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Disclosure innovations in financial reporting – This is a note on the innovative history of Philips’ financial reporting, see the ‘Introduction to a history of innovation in financial reporting‘.

In the Netherlands formal legislation concerning financial reporting was introduced rather late in the early 1970s. The lack of formal legislation was a stimulants to applying innovative financial reporting disclosures, bluntly said ‘anything was possible’ there were no legal minimum levels.

This part is based on a research overview by Camfferman (1996) in his paper ‘Voluntary annual report disclosure by listed Dutch companies, 1945 – 1983’. Camfferman’s work identifies 9 disclosure items. The nine disclosure innovations are discussed in here.

(1) Disclosure of Sales Disclosure innovations in financial reporting

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Prudent reporting in high performance periods

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Prudent reporting in high performance periods – This is a note on the innovative history of Philips’ financial reporting, see the ‘Introduction to a history of innovation in financial reporting‘.

As a starting point a short history of changes in the Philips’ accounting policies is provided: Prudent reporting in high performance periods

Before 1919

conservative accounting based on historical cost, write-off’s to one guilder, silent reserves, depreciation was treated as a distribution of income

1920 – 1939

a reserve for expansion was created containing money generated by additional paid-in capital (1920), in 1924 patents are capitalized

1930-1939

consolidated balance sheet (since 1931), revaluation reserve created, depreciation of capital expenditures charged to reserves

1940-1949

depreciation based on current fixed

… Read more